What are Scientific Methods?

Key message: Scientific methods are scientifically conducted methods.

A method is a systematically planned way to a goal. "Systematically planned" means the plan was devellopped "based on a system". A system is a set of elements that are interrelated. The behavior of a system is the result of the interaction of its elements, so a systematic method takes into account all the elements that affect the path to the goal (read on Learn-Study-Work "What are methods?").

"Methods are well-planned, well-founded procedures for achieving defined goals ... A method is a systematic instruction for action (a procedure) ... The instruction describes how, starting from given conditions, a goal can be achieved with a defined sequence of steps." (http://www.informatikbegriffsnetz.de/arbeitskreise/vorgehensmodelle/themenbereiche/prinzipMethodeWerkzeug.html, 12.02.14)

Are there rules that specify exactly how a scientist must proceed in order to gain new knowledge? Is there a simple standard for distinguishing scientific methods from unscientific ones?

“As Feyerabend … says, ‛The idea that science can, and should, be run according to fixed and universal rules is both unrealistic and pernicious‛ …

If we have a conception of science as an open-ended quest to improve our knowledge, then why cannot there be room for us to improve our methods and adapt and refine our standards in the light of what we learn." (Chalmers, A. F. (2007) What is this thing called Science. University of Queensland Press)

Every research discipline has recognized research methods that are carried out according to recognized rules. There are, however, no exhaustive lists of permissible scientific methods for each scientific discipline. If there were such lists, then methods that are not on the list should not be used in research. It would be very difficult to set up such lists, because in research often many scientists work together and use countless "auxiliary methods". Also, the "auxiliary methods" must be carried out scientifically so that the research can be successful.

"The Nobel Prize for Physics goes to the British Peter Higgs and the Belgian François Englert this year for the development of the so-called Higgs mechanism. ... Probably the experts have debated whether the European nuclear research center Cern also gets the price. Finally, in 2012, the Higgs boson was detected there - and the almost 50-year-old theory of Englert and Higgs thus only confirmed. However, selecting a single Cern experimenter and honoring the Nobel Prize for the discovery of the Higgs particle would have been difficult. Studies by CERN researchers usually have hundreds, and often thousands of authors, because they are all involved in the experiments. ... " (www.spiegel.de/wissenschaft/natur/physik-nobelpreis-2013-spaeter-triumph-fuer-higgs-und-englert-a-926775.html, 28.01.14, my translation)

If there are no official lists of allowed methods, does this mean that all methods may be used? No, methods which are based on belief or which are carried out unscientifically are excluded from research. Only methods may be used that meet current scientific standards or are described in sufficient detail to allow other scientists to apply them and obtain the same results (read on Learn-Study-Work "What is Science").

Which methods are considered scientifically recognized is decided by the discussion among scientists. New methods may or may not be recognized by other scientists.

Definition: Scientific methods are scientifically conducted methods. Scientifically conducted methods meet current scientific standards or are described in sufficient detail to allow other scientists to apply them and obtain the same results.

Helmut Seiffert says in the first volume of his "Introduction to Philosophy of Science" (8th Edition 1973, Munich: Verlag C. H. Beck, pp. 79-80, my translation):

"We must therefore confine ourselves to the general requirement that scientific statements are made with the help of the "appropiate" method.⁸⁴ ...

[There is] a compulsion ... to take note of the factually existing pluralism of methods. (Note 84: Kamlah, W., Logische Propädeutik oder Vorschule des vernünftigen Speens. Mannheim: Bibliographic Institute, p 118f., 124, 143)"

To conduct a method scientifically, however, is not so easy. Even the best method is worthless if it is performed unscientifically.

In research as well as in a the preparation of a thesis or dissertation, an attempt should first be made to reach the goal with recognized scientific methods. Only if this is not possible recognized methods should be modified or new (self-developed) methods should be used ("methods and standards can be improved", see above). Every change or every new method must be comprehensibly described and explained.

Recognized standards are (among others) objectivity, reability and validity.

1. Objectivity

Objectivity is the extent to which a research result is independent of the investigator in its implementation, evaluation and interpretation. It is the extent to which different examiners arrive at consistent results.

A test procedure is referred to as standardized or normed when the test result is independent of the test situation and the investigator. The test procedure must therefore be described so precisely (e.g. the object to be tested and its preparation, the equipment or chemicals used, the climatic conditions, ...) that the same test results can be obtained anywhere in the world if the test is carried out correctly with sufficiently accurate measuring equipment.

2. Reliability
Reliability indicates the dependability of a measurement method. An investigation is reliable if the same results are obtained in one or more repetitions of the measurement under the same conditions.

3. Validity

Validity indicates the degree of accuracy with which an investigation measures what it is intended to measure. With a measuring instrument, you can very reliably measure an incorrect result. In that case, it is reliable but not valid.

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